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Structuralism and the Qualities of Literature

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Jonathan Culler’s Structuralist Poetics: Structuralism, Linguistics and the Study of Literature explores the qualities of literature through the lens of structuralism. He defines structuralism as a theory that assumes that there is an underlying system that makes meaning possible in human actions and productions. He also posits that language and human culture operate in similar ways.

Culler developed a complex theory of poetics and narrative while writing the book. His book aims to revitalise literary criticism by making it more than just interpretive and instead turning it into a coherent discipline and mode of knowledge. Structuralist Poetics won the 1976 James Russell Lowell Prize from the Modern Language Association of America. It is hailed as the “most thorough and influential account” in the English-speaking world of the school of structuralism as a critical theory of literature.

The essay “Structuralism and the Qualities of Literature” from Structuralist Poetics explores the application of structuralist theory to literature, focusing on how structuralism illuminates the distinctiveness of literature as a form of human communication. The essay represents a synthesis of structuralist ideas from figures like Ferdinand de Saussure, Roland Barthes, and Claude Lévi-Strauss, among others, and it works to establish how structuralist analysis can reveal the underlying conventions and codes that define literary works.

Literature as a System of Signs

Culler begins by emphasising that literature, like language, can be understood as a system of signs. Drawing from Saussure’s linguistic theory, Culler argues that literary works do not derive meaning from a direct reference to reality but from how they function within a system of cultural codes and conventions. This perspective mirrors Saussure’s idea that meaning in language arises from the relationships between signs rather than their inherent connection to the real world.

Culler proposes that literature operates according to a specific set of rules different from ordinary language use. These rules, however, are not immediately apparent to the casual reader. Instead, they are part of a more extensive “literary competence” that experienced readers and critics develop over time. This competence allows readers to recognise and interpret the conventions that make literature distinct from other forms of discourse.

The Concept of Literariness

One of the central themes in this section of the essay is the concept of “literariness”, which refers to the qualities that make a text specifically literary. Culler notes that structuralism moves away from the traditional view of literature as a repository of timeless truths or personal expressions of the author’s inner life. Instead, it focuses on the formal and functional qualities of literature —how literary texts organise language, use narrative structures, and manipulate reader expectations.

Building on Russian Formalist ideas, Culler suggests that literariness is determined by how a text disrupts ordinary language and challenges conventional ways of seeing the world. For instance, literary texts often employ techniques such as metaphor, irony, and ambiguity that force the reader to engage more deeply with the text and question their assumptions about meaning.

The Role of the Reader

Culler’s structuralist approach also places significant emphasis on the role of the reader in creating meaning. He argues that the meaning of a literary work is not something inherent in the text itself but something produced through the interaction between the text and the reader’s literary competence. In other words, a text’s meaning is not fixed but emerges through the reader’s ability to recognise and interpret the codes and conventions that structure it.

Culler expands on this by discussing how readers are trained to expect certain forms and structures in literature. These expectations guide the reading process and allow readers to identify a text as literature. For example, readers recognise the difference between prose and poetry, narrative fiction and drama, based on the conventions that each genre typically follows.

Literature and Cultural Codes

In addition to focusing on the formal properties of literature, Culler addresses how literature reflects and engages with broader cultural codes. He argues that literary works are not isolated from the social and cultural contexts in which they are produced. Instead, they are shaped by the same codes and conventions that govern other forms of social discourse. Structuralist analysis, therefore, does not merely uncover the internal structures of literary texts but also reveals how these texts participate in and reflect the larger cultural systems of meaning.

Culler explains that literature often plays with and subverts cultural codes, offering new ways of thinking about social norms and values. This subversion can be subtle, such as in the use of irony or parody, or more overt, such as in the case of politically charged literature that challenges dominant ideologies. According to Culler, structuralist analysis helps uncover these dynamics by showing how literature reflects and reshapes cultural meaning.

The Limitations of Structuralism

Toward the end of his essay, Culler acknowledges some of the criticisms and limitations of structuralist theory. One critique is that structuralism can become overly focused on formal analysis, neglecting the historical and social dimensions of literary production. Another critique is that structuralism, in its search for universal structures, risks reducing the complexity and specificity of individual literary works.

However, Culler defends structuralism by arguing that it provides valuable tools for understanding the formal and cultural dynamics of literature. Structuralist analysis, he suggests, does not exclude other forms of interpretation but can complement them by revealing the underlying systems of meaning that shape literary texts.

Contribution to Literary Theory

Jonathan Culler’s essay is significant for clearly articulating the structuralist approach to literature. Culler successfully distils complex ideas from structural linguistics and semiotics into a coherent framework for analysing literature. His emphasis on “literary competence” is particularly insightful, as it acknowledges that reading literature is an active, interpretive process shaped by cultural and formal knowledge. This shift from viewing literature as a passive object to be decoded to seeing it as a dynamic system that involves reader participation represents a pivotal contribution to literary theory.

Understanding of Literariness

Culler’s exploration of “literariness” challenges traditional notions of what makes a text literary, pushing readers and critics to consider the formal and functional qualities of texts. This approach encourages readers to look beyond content and themes to examine how a text is constructed and how it engages with conventions. By focusing on how literature uses language differently from ordinary discourse, Culler opens up new avenues for appreciating the artistry of literary works.

Reader-Text Interaction

One of the most compelling aspects of Culler’s essay is his focus on the interaction between the reader and the text. His emphasis on the reader’s role in creating meaning aligns with later developments in reader-response theory and post-structuralism. This aspect of Culler’s work is particularly valuable because it democratises literary interpretation, suggesting that meaning is not solely the domain of critics or authors but something that emerges through the reader’s engagement with the text.

Cultural Relevance of Literature

Culler’s discussion of literature’s relationship to cultural codes also demonstrates the broader relevance of structuralist theory. By showing how literary texts reflect and engage with cultural systems of meaning, Culler highlights literature’s power to both reinforce and challenge societal norms. This approach helps to bridge the gap between formalist readings of literature and more historically or politically oriented interpretations.

Jonathan Culler’s essay “Structuralism and the Qualities of Literature” provides a nuanced and comprehensive overview of how structuralist theory can be applied to the study of literature. By focusing on the formal properties of texts, the role of the reader, and the relationship between literature and cultural codes, Culler shows how structuralism offers a robust framework for understanding what makes literature distinct. While acknowledging the limitations of structuralism, Culler ultimately argues that its insights into the conventions and structures underlying literary works remain valuable tools for both readers and critics.

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Devika Panikar
Devika Panikar
δάσκαλος (dáskalos) means the teacher in Greek. Devika Panikar has been teaching English Language and Literature since 2006. She is an Assistant Professor with the Directorate of Collegiate Education under the Government of Kerala and now works at the Government College Kasaragod. This website is a collection of lecture notes she prepared by referring to various sources for her students’ perusal.

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