The speech mechanism involves a complex interplay of various anatomical structures and physiological processes. It can be broadly divided into three main stages:
- The initiation of speech
- The production of speech sounds
- The transmission of those sounds
Initiation of Speech
Cognitive Processes
The desire or need to communicate triggers cognitive processes in the brain. The speaker formulates thoughts and intentions to convey through speech.
Language Processing
The brain engages in linguistic processing, selecting appropriate words, sentence structures, and meanings to convey the intended message.
Production of Speech Sounds
Respiration (Breathing)
The process begins with respiration. The speaker inhales air into the lungs. During speech, exhalation provides the airflow needed for sound production.
Phonation (Vibration of Vocal Cords)
The speaker’s vocal cords in the larynx (voice box) come together. If voiced sounds are to be produced, the vocal cords vibrate as air from the lungs passes through, creating sound.
Articulation (Formation of Sounds)
The speaker adjusts the position of the tongue, lips, jaw, and other articulators to shape the sound. Different speech sounds are produced by altering the airflow and constriction of the vocal tract.
Place and Manner of Articulation
Place is the location in the vocal tract where the airflow is obstructed or modified (e.g., bilabial, alveolar, velar). Manner is how the airflow is obstructed or altered (e.g., stops, fricatives, affricates).
Nasality
The velum (soft part at the back of the roof of the mouth) can be raised or lowered, allowing or blocking airflow through the nasal cavity.
Intonation and Prosody
Intonation patterns and prosody involve pitch, stress, and rhythm variations, which contribute to the melody and rhythm of speech.
Transmission of Speech Sounds
Resonance
The oral and nasal cavities and the pharynx act as resonating chambers that shape the sound quality. The movement of the soft palate (velum) determines whether the sound is oral or nasal.
Speech Articulators
The tongue, lips, teeth, and other articulators articulate specific speech sounds.
Auditory Feedback
The speaker receives immediate auditory feedback, allowing for self-monitoring and real-time adjustments.
Speech Output
The articulated speech sounds are transmitted as acoustic signals.
Producing English Sounds
Producing the 44 sounds in English involves the coordinated movement of various speech organs, including the tongue, lips, teeth, palates, and vocal cords.
Pure Vowels
/i:/
/i:/ is a long vowel sound in English. To pronounce /i:/, position your tongue high in the front of your mouth with your lips slightly spread. This sound is similar to the “ee” sound in words like “see” or “tree”.
/ɪ/
The /ɪ/ sound is a short or lax vowel in English. When producing the /ɪ/ sound, the tongue is positioned in the front of the mouth, but it is not as high as in the long vowel /i:/. The lips are more relaxed than the slightly spread position for /i:/. This sound is similar to the “i” in words like “sit” or “hit”.
/e/
The /e/ sound is a long vowel in English. To produce the /e/ sound, position your tongue mid-high in the front of your mouth with your lips slightly spread. This sound is similar to the “e” sound in words like “get” or “when”.
/æ/
The /æ/ sound is a short or lax vowel in English. When pronouncing /æ/, the tongue is positioned low in the front of the mouth, and the lips are slightly spread. This sound is similar to the “a” in words like “cat” or “bat”.
/ɑ:/
The /ɑ:/ sound is a long vowel in English. To pronounce /ɑ:/, position your tongue low in the back of your mouth with your mouth open wider and your lips somewhat rounded. This sound is similar to the “ah” sound in words like “car” or “father”.
/ɒ/
The /ɒ/ sound is considered a short or lax vowel in English. When producing the /ɒ/ sound, the tongue is positioned mid-low in the back of the mouth, and the lips are rounded. This sound is similar to the “o” in words like “hot” or “not”.
/ɔ:/
The /ɔ:/ sound is a long vowel in English. To produce the /ɔ:/ sound, position your tongue mid-low in the back of your mouth with your lips somewhat rounded. This sound is similar to the “aw” sound in words like “saw” or “draw”.
/ʊ/
The /ʊ/ sound is considered a short or lax vowel in English. To pronounce the /ʊ/ sound, position your tongue mid-high in the back of your mouth with your lips rounded. This sound is similar to the “oo” sound in words like “book” or “look”.
/u:/
The /u:/ sound is a long vowel in English. To produce the /u:/ sound, round your lips and position your tongue high in the back of the mouth. This sound is similar to the “oo” sound in words like “food” or “mood”.
/ʌ/
The /ʌ/ sound is considered a short or lax vowel in English. When producing the /ʌ/ sound, the tongue is positioned mid-low in the mouth, and the lips are slightly spread. This sound can be found in words like “cup” or “sun”.
/ə/
The /ə/ sound is called a schwa and is considered a short or lax vowel in English. When pronouncing /ə/, the tongue is positioned mid-central in the mouth, and the lips are relaxed. This sound is similar to the “a” sound in “allow” or”about”.
/ɜ:/
The /ɜ:/ sound is a long vowel in English. The tongue is mid-high and central in the mouth with slightly rounded lips to pronounce /ɜ:/. This sound can be found in words like “her” or “term”.
Diphthongs
/aʊ/
The /aʊ/ sound is a diphthong in English, created by combining “ah” and “oo.” To produce the /aʊ/ sound, begin with your mouth in an “ah” position and then round your lips as if you were saying “oo.” This sound is similar to the “ow” in words like “cow” or “now”.
/aɪ/
The /aɪ/ sound is formed by combining the sounds “ah” and “ee.” To produce the /aɪ/ sound, begin with your mouth open and then gradually close it as if you were saying “ah,” and then shift to the “ee” sound. This sound is similar to the “i” in words like “fine” or “mine”.
/eɪ/
The /eɪ/ sound is formed by blending “eh” and “ee.” To pronounce the /eɪ/ sound, begin with your mouth in an “eh” position and then transition to the “ee” sound. This sound is similar to the “ay” in words like “stay” or “play”.
/əʊ/
The /əʊ/ sound is created by combining the sounds “uh” and “oo.” To produce the /əʊ/ sound, begin with your mouth in an “uh” position and then round your lips as if you were saying “oo.” This sound is similar to the “o” in words like “go” or “no”.
/ɪə/
The /ɪə/ sound is formed by combining the sounds “ih” and “ee.” To pronounce the /ɪə/ sound, start with your mouth in an “ih” position and then shift to the “ee” sound. This sound is similar to the “ear” in words like “fear” or “tear”.
/eə/
The /eə/ sound is created by blending “eh” and “uh.” To pronounce the /eə/ sound, start with your mouth in an “eh” position and then transition to the “uh” sound. This sound is similar to the “air” in words like “pair” or “stair”.
/ʊə/
The /ʊə/ sound is formed by combining “oo” and “uh.” To articulate the /ʊə/ sound, start with your lips rounded as if saying “oo” and then transition to an “uh” sound. This sound is similar to the “ure” in words like “pure” or “mature”.
/ɔɪ/
The /ɔɪ/ sound is formed by blending the sounds “aw” and “ee.” To pronounce the /ɔɪ/ sound, start with your mouth in an “aw” position and then shift to the “ee” sound. This sound is similar to the “oi” in words like “join” or “coin”.
Consonants
/p/
/p/ is a voiceless bilabial plosive consonant. To produce the /p/ sound, pressing your lips together creates a complete closure. Then, release the airflow quickly by opening your lips while keeping the back of your tongue against the roof of your mouth. This sound is similar to the “p” sound in words like “pat” or “piece”.
/b/
/b/ is a voiced bilabial plosive consonant. Press your lips together to produce the /b/ sound, creating a complete closure like in the /p/ sound. However, this time, instead of releasing the airflow quickly, you allow it to vibrate your vocal cords. Then, release the closure by opening your lips. This sound is similar to the “b” sound in words like “bat” or “rib”.
/t/
/t/ is a voiceless alveolar plosive consonant. To produce the /t/ sound, begin by placing the tip of your tongue against the ridge behind your upper front teeth, creating a closure. Then, release the airflow quickly by opening your mouth, allowing the air to pass through. This sound is similar to the “t” sound in words like “top” or “cat”.
/d/
/d/ is a voiced alveolar plosive consonant. To produce the /d/ sound, start by placing the tip of your tongue against the ridge behind your upper front teeth, just like in the /t/ sound. This time, instead of releasing the airflow quickly, you allow it to vibrate your vocal cords. Then, release the tongue tip from the ridge by opening your mouth. This sound is similar to the “d” sound in words like “dog” or “ride”.
/k/
The /k/ sound is a voiceless velar stop consonant. To produce the /k/ sound, you need to create a complete closure at the back of your mouth by raising the back of your tongue to touch the soft part of your palate, called the velum. Then, release the airflow quickly by opening your mouth, allowing the air to pass through. This sound is similar to the “k” sound in words like “cat” or “kick”.
/g/
/g/ is a voiced velar stop consonant. To produce the /g/ sound, create a complete closure at the back of your mouth, just like in the /k/ sound. However, this time, instead of releasing the airflow quickly, you allow it to vibrate your vocal cords. Then, release the closure by opening your mouth. This sound is similar to the “g” sound in words like “go” or “bag”.
/tʃ/
/tʃ/ is a voiceless palato-alveolar affricate consonant. To produce the /tʃ/ sound, begin by placing the tip of your tongue against the alveolar ridge, just like in the /t/ sound. Then, create a slight constriction by raising the middle part of your tongue towards the hard palate. This makes a closure that briefly blocks the airflow. Next, release the closure by moving your tongue quickly away from the alveolar ridge, allowing the airflow to pass through. This sound is similar to the “ch” sound in words like “chair” or “catch”. It combines the stop closure of /t/ with the fricative release of /ʃ/.
/dʒ/
/dʒ/ is a voiced palato-alveolar affricate consonant. To produce the /dʒ/ sound, follow the same steps as the /tʃ/ sound. Start by placing the tip of your tongue against the alveolar ridge, creating a closure. Then, raise the middle part of your tongue towards the hard palate to make a slight constriction. Release the closure by moving your tongue away from the alveolar ridge, allowing the airflow to pass through. This sound is similar to the “j” sound in words like “jump” or “judge”.
/f/
/f/ is a voiceless labiodental fricative consonant. To produce the /f/ sound, bring your bottom lip gently up to touch your top teeth. Create a small gap between your teeth and lips to allow the airflow to pass through. Then, release a steady stream of air through the gap while keeping your vocal cords silent. This sound is similar to the “f” sound in words like “fan” or “leaf”.
/v/
/v/ is a voiced labiodental fricative consonant. To produce the /v/ sound, follow the same steps as the /f/ sound. Bring your bottom lip gently to touch your top teeth and create a small gap between your teeth and lips. However, instead of keeping your vocal cords silent this time, activate them to vibrate while the airflow passes through the gap. This adds a buzzing or vibrating quality to the sound. This sound is similar to the “v” sound in words like “voice” or “love”.
/θ/
/θ/ is a voiceless interdental fricative consonant. To produce the /θ/ sound, gently place the tip of your tongue between your top and bottom front teeth, creating a narrow passage for the airflow. Allow the air to pass through the gap while keeping your vocal cords silent. Be mindful not to bite down on your tongue, but let the airflow create a fricative sound. This sound is similar to the “th” sound in words like “think” or “bath”.
/ð/
/ð/ is a voiced interdental fricative consonant. To produce the /ð/ sound, follow the same steps as the /θ/ sound. Place the tip of your tongue gently between your top and bottom front teeth, creating a narrow passage for the airflow. However, this time, activate your vocal cords to vibrate while the airflow passes through the gap. This adds a voiced quality to the sound. This sound is similar to the “th” sound in words like “this” or “that”.
/s/
/s/ is a voiceless alveolar fricative consonant. To produce the /s/ sound, position your tongue close to the alveolar ridge, the bumpy ridge behind your upper front teeth. Create a narrow passage for the airflow by slightly constricting the space between your tongue and the alveolar ridge. Release the air through this gap while keeping your vocal cords silent. This sound is similar to the “s” sound in words like “sun” or “pass”.
/z/
/z/ is a voiced alveolar fricative consonant. To produce the /z/ sound, follow the same steps as the /s/ sound. Position your tongue close to the alveolar ridge and create a narrow passage for the airflow. However, this time, activate your vocal cords to vibrate while the airflow passes through the gap. This adds a buzzing or vibrating quality to the sound. This sound is similar to the “z” sound in words like “zero” or “maze”.
/ʃ/
/ʃ/ is a voiceless palato-alveolar fricative consonant. To produce the /ʃ/ sound, position the middle part of your tongue against the roof of your mouth, specifically the area behind the alveolar ridge and closer to the hard palate. Create a narrow passage for the airflow by slightly constricting the space between your tongue and the roof of your mouth. Release the air through this gap while keeping your vocal cords silent. This sound is similar to the “sh” sound in words like “she” or “push”.
/ʒ/
/ʒ/ is a voiced palato-alveolar fricative consonant. To produce the /ʒ/ sound, follow the same steps as the /ʃ/ sound. Position the middle part of your tongue against the roof of your mouth, behind the alveolar ridge and closer to the hard palate. Create a narrow passage for the airflow by slightly constricting the space between your tongue and the roof of your mouth. However, this time, activate your vocal cords to vibrate while the airflow passes through the gap. This adds a buzzing or vibrating quality to the sound. This sound is similar to the “zh” sound in words like “measure” or “treasure”. It is worth noting that the /ʃ/ and /ʒ/ sounds are often represented by the letters “sh” and “s” in English.
/h/
/h/ is a voiceless glottal fricative. This sound is produced by narrowing the space in the back of your throat. Position your vocal cords to allow air to pass through the glottis with a slight constriction. You should hear a sound similar to a breathy exhale or a gentle whisper as you release the air. Unlike other fricative sounds, the /h/ sound does not involve the tongue or any specific placement of the articulatory organs. It is a purely vocal sound. /h/ is commonly seen at the beginning of words like “hello” or “house”.
/m/
/m/ is a voiced bilabial nasal consonant. To produce the /m/ sound, bring your lips together and create a closure, allowing airflow only through your nose. You should feel the vibrations in your nasal cavity as you release the air. The /m/ sound is similar to the “m” in words like “moon” or “map”. It is produced solely through the nasal passage.
/n/
/n/ is a voiced alveolar nasal consonant. To produce the /n/ sound, position the tip of your tongue against the alveolar ridge. Close off the oral cavity by making contact between the tip of your tongue and the alveolar ridge. This creates a narrow passage for the airflow to pass through your nasal cavity. You should feel the vibrations in your nasal cavity as you release the air. The /n/ sound is similar to the “n” in words like “net” or “nice”.
/ŋ/
/ŋ/ is a voiced velar nasal consonant. Start by placing the back of your tongue against the soft part of your palate near the back of your mouth. Create a closure between the back of your tongue and the soft part of your palate, blocking the airflow from the oral cavity. Instead, allow the air to flow through your nasal cavity, similar to the /n/ sound. You should feel the vibrations in your nasal cavity as you release the air. The /ŋ/ sound is identical to the “ng” sound in words like “song” or “long”.
/l/
/l/ is a voiced alveolar liquid consonant. It is produced by placing the tip of the tongue against the alveolar ridge, allowing air to flow along the sides of the tongue. The /l/ sound is unique because it has both a lateral airflow and a vocalic quality. As you release the air and vibrate your vocal cords, the sound produced is similar to the “l” sound in words like “love” or “little”. This sound does not involve any constriction or blockage of the airflow, making it distinct from other consonant sounds.
/r/
/r/ is a voiced alveolar or post-alveolar liquid consonant. To produce the /r/ sound, curl the tip of your tongue back and slightly elevate the back of your tongue towards the roof of your mouth. There should be a slight constriction in the oral cavity but no complete closure. As you release the air, vibrate your vocal cords to create the distinctive /r/ sound. The /r/ sound is similar to the “r” sound in words like “red” or “run”.
/w/
/w/ is a voiced labio-velar approximant consonant. It is produced by rounding the lips and creating a narrow passage between the back of the tongue and the velum. This allows the airflow to pass through the oral cavity while causing slight constriction. As you release the air and vibrate your vocal cords, the sound produced is similar to the “w” sound in words like “wonder” or “water”. The /w/ sound is unique because it combines lip rounding and velar positioning, creating a distinct sound in English.
/j/
/j/ is a voiced palatal approximant consonant. It is produced by raising the middle of the tongue towards the hard palate, creating a narrow passage for the airflow to pass through. To make the /j/ sound, start with the tongue in a neutral position and then quickly move it towards the hard palate, creating a momentary closure before releasing the air. As you release the air and vibrate your vocal cords, the sound produced is similar to the “y” sound in words like “yes” or “yellow”.
The mechanism of speech involves:
- The initiation of cognitive processes
- The coordination of respiratory, phonatory, and articulatory mechanisms
- The transmission of sound through resonance and articulation
This complex process allows humans to convey thoughts, emotions, and information through spoken language.