Objective criticism is a significant approach in literary theory that emerged in the early 20th century, primarily associated with the New Criticism movement. It emphasises analysing a work of literature based on its intrinsic qualities rather than the author’s intention, historical context, or emotional impact. Rooted in the ideas of literary theorists like T S Eliot, I A Richards, and Cleanth Brooks, objective criticism focuses on the text itself, advocating for an impersonal and scientific approach to literary analysis.
Tradition
Tradition, in the context of objective criticism, refers to the collective body of past works and cultural heritage that forms a backdrop against which new literary works are created and evaluated. T S Eliot, in his essay Tradition and the Individual Talent (1919), argued that no poet or artist has a complete meaning alone. The value of a work lies in its relationship with the existing tradition.
Tradition, according to Eliot, isn’t blind adherence to the past. Instead, it involves acquiring knowledge from past writers through diligent study. Eliot believed poets should deeply understand literary tradition to create new works that resonate with historical context and literary continuity. However, he maintained that while a poet draws from tradition, the poet must also contribute something new and unique, balancing tradition and innovation. Tradition could only be grasped by those possessing the “historical sense,” which recognises both the pastness and presence of history. In this view, literature exists in an invisible order, where each work influences and modifies others.
Theory of Impersonality
The theory of impersonality, also proposed by Eliot, emphasises that the poet’s personal feelings and emotions should not dominate the creation of poetry. Instead, poetry should transcend individual experience and be shaped by a broader, more universal artistic vision.
According to Eliot, great poetry is not a reflection of the poet’s emotions but a work that objectively captures universal emotions and experiences. This theory supports the idea that poetry should exist independently of the poet’s personal life, intentions, or emotions, allowing readers to interpret it without needing to know the author’s background. Here, the poet is seen as a medium through which tradition and individual talent are combined. The poet submerges their own feelings and experiences into the subject of their poetry. Impersonality allows poets to tap into tradition and historical sense, creating a dynamic interrelation with past works.
Objective Correlative
The term “objective correlative” was coined by Eliot to describe a set of objects, situations, or events that serve to evoke a particular emotion in the reader or audience. It is a means of expressing emotions through concrete images, symbols, or metaphors rather than direct statements of feeling.
Eliot argued that effective poetry should not tell the reader what to feel but instead create a scenario or set of images that elicit a specific emotional response. The objective correlative helps to achieve impersonality by shifting the focus away from the poet’s subjective feelings to a shared, objective emotional experience. Eliot praised Lady Macbeth’s state of mind as a successful objective correlative in Shakespeare’s works.
Unification of Sensibility
Unification of sensibility, introduced by Eliot, refers to the ability to synthesise thought and feeling in a single, unified poetic expression. According to Eliot, this quality was prevalent in metaphysical poetry, where intellect and emotion were seamlessly combined.
Eliot believed that while earlier poets like John Donne seamlessly combined thought and feeling, later poets, particularly from the 17th century onward, experienced a dissociation of sensibility where thought and feeling became disconnected. Eliot lamented this change, believing that poetry lost something essential in the process. Objective criticism value works that achieve a unification of sensibility, seeing this synthesis as a hallmark of great literature.
Dissociation of Sensibility
Dissociation of sensibility is Eliot’s term for the separation of thought and feeling that occurred in poetry after the metaphysical period (17th century). He argued that poets like John Milton and John Dryden represented a departure from earlier poetic traditions, which integrated emotion and intellect.
Eliot saw the dissociation of sensibility as detrimental to poetry. He felt that it led to a decline in the quality of poetic expression by creating a gap between the poet’s intellect and emotions. Objective criticism advocates for poetry that can reunite these elements, fostering a more complete and impactful poetic experience.
Referential and Emotive Use of Language
The terms referential and emotive come from the linguistic theory that language serves two primary functions: referential (denotative, conveying information) and emotive (connotative, evoking feelings). The referential use relates to facts, while the emotive use relates to emotions and connotations. This distinction was made by I A Richards in Principles of Literary Criticism (1924). He argued that understanding this distinction is crucial for literary analysis.
Objective critics distinguish between these two uses, emphasising that literary language should go beyond mere referential or emotive purposes. They advocate for a balanced use where language is both precise (referential) and evocative (emotive), capturing the complexity of human experience. A successful poem balances both aspects, allowing readers to engage intellectually and emotionally.
Four Kinds of Meaning
The concept of four kinds of meaning was introduced by I A Richards in his book Practical Criticism (1929). He categorised the meanings of words into four types:
- Sense: The literal meaning or the information content.
- Feeling: The emotional tone or the connotations that words carry.
- Tone: The writer’s attitude toward the subject or audience.
- Intention: The purpose behind the text or what the writer wants to achieve.
Richards’ theory is used in objective criticism to analyse how a text simultaneously conveys meaning on multiple levels. By focusing on these four kinds of meaning, critics can objectively assess the richness and depth of a literary work without needing to consider external factors like the author’s biography.
Practical Criticism
Practical criticism, developed by I A Richards, involves the close reading of texts to determine their meaning, form, and effect without considering any external information, such as the author’s intention or historical context.
Practical criticism aims to evaluate a text purely based on its internal elements—such as language, structure, imagery, and symbolism. It encourages readers to engage directly with the text and form their own interpretations. This method is in line with the principles of objective criticism, which focuses on what is actually in the text rather than what surrounds it.
Critical Aspects of Objective Criticism
Close Reading
- Detailed, careful analysis of the text itself
- Focus on elements like diction, imagery, syntax, and structure
- Aims to uncover how these elements contribute to the overall meaning
Autonomy of the Text
- The belief that a literary work should be considered as a self-contained entity
- Emphasis on intrinsic rather than extrinsic factors in interpretation
Intentional Fallacy
- Concept introduced by W K Wimsatt and Monroe Beardsley
- Argues against using the author’s intention as a standard for judging a work’s success or meaning
- Reinforces the focus on the text itself rather than authorial intent
Affective Fallacy
- Also, from Wimsatt and Beardsley
- Warns against judging a work based on its emotional effect on the reader
- Emphasises objective analysis over subjective response
- Tension and Irony
- New Critics often focused on identifying tensions, paradoxes, and ironies within texts
- Seen as key elements in creating complex and meaningful literary works
Organic Unity
- The idea that all elements of a successful literary work are interconnected and essential
- Each part contributes to the overall meaning and effect of the whole
Objective criticism, mainly as developed by the New Critics, had a significant impact on literary studies in the mid-20th century. It represents a shift from biographical, historical, or expressive theories of literature to an emphasis on the text itself. It values tradition but also innovation within that tradition; it demands a scientific approach to the understanding of literary language, form, and meaning. By focusing on principles like impersonality, objective correlative, and practical criticism, objective critics aim to understand literature in a rigorous and insightful way, highlighting the text’s merits and artistic qualities.