Neoclassical criticism, which flourished during the 17th and 18th centuries, was deeply rooted in the intellectual and cultural movements of the Enlightenment. It emphasised the values of reason, order, and decorum, reflecting a renewed interest in the classical ideals of ancient Greece and Rome. Neoclassical critics believed that rational principles should govern literature and that the works of classical antiquity provided the best models for achieving artistic excellence.
The Enlightenment
The Enlightenment, also known as the Age of Reason, was a period of intellectual and cultural growth in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries. An emphasis on reason, science, and the pursuit of knowledge characterised it. Enlightenment thinkers sought to apply rational principles to all areas of human life, including politics, society, and the arts. Neoclassical criticism emerged from this intellectual climate, drawing on the emphasis of Enlightenment on reason and order. Critics believed that universal principles of taste and judgement should govern literature, and they looked to the classical works of ancient Greece and Rome as models of perfection.
The Enlightenment greatly influenced neoclassical thought by promoting:
- Rational thinking and scientific inquiry
- Belief in human progress and perfectibility
- Questioning of traditional authorities and institutions
- Emphasis on education and the spread of knowledge
Liberal Humanism
Liberal humanism, a key component of neoclassical criticism, is the belief in the inherent dignity and worth of the individual. It emphasises the importance of human reason and the capacity for self-improvement. In neoclassical criticism, liberal humanism manifested in the belief that literature should reflect universal truths about human nature and contribute to the individual’s moral and intellectual development. Neoclassical critics valued literature that upheld humanistic ideals, such as the importance of virtue, wisdom, and moderation. They believed that literature should teach as well as entertain and that it should promote the moral and intellectual growth of its audience.
Liberal humanism emphasised:
- The inherent dignity and worth of all individuals
- The importance of education in developing human potential
- The belief in reason and critical thinking
- The promotion of individual rights and freedoms
Objectivity
Objectivity was a central tenet of neoclassical criticism. Critics believed that literature should be judged by objective standards of taste and quality rather than personal or emotional responses. They argued that universal principles of beauty and truth could be applied to all works of art. This emphasis on objectivity led to rigid rules and conventions for literary composition, such as the unities of time, place, and action in drama. Neoclassical critics valued clarity, precision, and coherence in literature, and they were wary of excessive emotion or imagination, which they believed could lead to disorder and confusion.
Neoclassical critics believed that:
- There were universal standards of beauty and excellence
- These standards could be discerned through reason and study
- Personal taste should be subordinate to these objective criteria
- Criticism should be based on established rules and principles rather than subjective impressions
Rationality and Reason
Rationality and reason were at the heart of neoclassical criticism. Critics believed that literature should reflect the rational order of the universe and should be governed by logical principles. They valued literature demonstrating clear, logical thinking and adhering to reason and order principles. This emphasis on rationality led to a preference for well-structured works that followed established conventions. Neoclassical critics were sceptical of literary works that relied too heavily on emotion, imagination, or innovation, which they believed could lead to chaos and irrationality. Instead, they valued works that demonstrated intellectual rigour and adhered to the principles of reason and order.
In criticism, rationality manifested as:
- A logical approach to analysing literary works
- Emphasis on clear, orderly structure in both literature and criticism
- Preference for works that appealed to the intellect rather than emotions
- Scepticism towards supernatural or irrational elements in literature
Balance and Harmony
Balance and harmony were central values in neoclassical criticism. Critics believed literature should be balanced and harmonious, reflecting the universe’s natural order. They valued works that demonstrated a sense of proportion and symmetry and that avoided excess or exaggeration. This emphasis on balance led to a preference for moderation in all things, including emotion, imagination, and style. Neoclassical critics valued restraint and discipline in literary composition and were wary of overly emotional, imaginative, or experimental works. They believed that literature should be measured and controlled, reflecting the rational order of the universe.
Neoclassical critics valued balance in artistic and literary works, which included:
- Harmony between form and content
- Equilibrium between different elements of a work (E.g., plot, character, setting)
- Moderation in the expression of emotions
- Avoidance of extremes in style or subject matter
Art as Skill
Neoclassical critics viewed art as a skill that could be learned and perfected through practice and study. They believed that artistic excellence was achieved by mastering established techniques and conventions rather than through individual inspiration or innovation. This emphasis on art as a skill led to the development of rigid rules and guidelines for literary composition, such as the unities of time, place, and action in drama and the use of classical forms and genres. Neoclassical critics valued literature that demonstrated technical proficiency and adhered to established conventions. They believed true art required discipline, practice, and a deep knowledge of the classical tradition.
Neoclassical critics viewed art primarily as a craft to be mastered rather than a product of pure inspiration, which meant:
- Emphasis on technical proficiency and adherence to established rules
- The belief that great art could be produced through study and practice
- Appreciation for works that demonstrated mastery of form and technique
- Scepticism towards notions of innate genius or divine inspiration
Decorum
Decorum, or the adherence to appropriate behaviour and language, was a fundamental principle of neoclassical criticism. Critics believed that literature should adhere to the rules of decorum, reflecting the social and moral values of the time. This meant that characters, language, and themes in literature should be appropriate to their context and should reflect the values of reason, order, and moderation. Neoclassical critics valued dignified and restrained literature and were critical of vulgar, excessive, or inappropriate works. They believed that literature should reflect the social and moral order of the universe and that it should promote virtue and good behaviour.
Decorum involved:
- Matching the style to the genre and subject matter
- Ensuring characters behaved in ways appropriate to their social status and role
- Avoiding mixing of high and low elements in serious works
- Maintaining a sense of propriety and moral correctness
Moderation
Moderation was a central value in neoclassical criticism. Critics believed literature should be moderate in all things, avoiding excess or extremes. This emphasis on moderation led to a preference for balanced and controlled works that avoided excessive emotion, imagination, or innovation. Neoclassical critics valued restraint and discipline in literary composition and were wary of overly emotional, imaginative, or experimental works. They believed that literature should be measured and controlled, reflecting the rational order of the universe. This emphasis on moderation also extended to the themes and characters in literature, which were expected to reflect the values of reason, order, and moderation.
Neoclassical critics advocated for moderation in all aspects of art and literature:
- Avoidance of excessive emotion or sentimentality
- Preference for restraint in style and expression
- Rejection of extravagance or ostentation in language or imagery
- Emphasis on clarity and simplicity over complexity or obscurity
Imitation of Classical Models
The imitation of classical models was a fundamental principle of neoclassical criticism. Critics believed that the works of ancient Greece and Rome represented the highest achievements of literature and that contemporary writers should strive to emulate these classical models. This emphasis on imitation led to the development of rigid rules and conventions for literary composition, such as the unities of time, place, and action in drama and the use of classical forms and genres. Neoclassical critics valued literature that demonstrated a deep knowledge of the classical tradition and adhered to the principles of reason, order, and decorum. They believed true art required discipline, practice, and a deep knowledge of the classical tradition.
Neoclassical critics believed that the best way to achieve excellence was to study and imitate the great works of classical antiquity:
- Admiration for Greek and Roman literature, art, and architecture
- Belief that classical works embodied timeless principles of beauty and truth
- Encouragement of writers and artists to emulate classical forms and themes
- Study of classical languages and literature as essential to artistic education
The Role of the Writer
In the neoclassical view, the role of the writer was not to innovate or express personal feelings but to adhere to established norms and convey universal truths. Writers were expected to follow the guidelines set by the classical tradition, mastering the rules of their craft and applying them with skill. Originality was less valued than the ability to execute genre conventions and form skilfully. This led to a literary culture that prized refinement, polish, and the imitation of established models over individual creativity or emotional expression.
Neoclassical Criticism in Drama
Neoclassical criticism had a powerful influence on drama. The unities of time, place, and action were central to neoclassical drama, emphasising order, balance, and decorum. The unity of time dictated that the action of a play should occur within a single day; the unity of place required that the action be confined to a single location; and the unity of action demanded that the plot should be focused and coherent, without subplots or digressions. These rules were derived from the works of classical dramatists like Aristotle and were strictly adhered to by neoclassical playwrights and critics.
Neoclassical Criticism and Poetry
In poetry, neoclassical critics valued form, meter, and clarity. The heroic couplet, consisting of rhymed pairs of iambic pentameter lines, became the dominant poetic form of the neoclassical period. Poets like Alexander Pope and John Dryden excelled in this form, using it to craft polished, witty, and intellectually rigorous verse. Neoclassical poetry was often didactic, seeking to instruct as well as to delight, and it adhered to the principles of order, balance, and decorum. The imitation of classical models, such as the odes of Horace or the epics of Homer and Virgil, was also central to neoclassical poetry.
Neoclassical Criticism and the Novel
As a relatively new literary form, the novel was also influenced by neoclassical criticism, though to a lesser extent than drama or poetry. Neoclassical novelists like Samuel Richardson and Henry Fielding adhered to the principles of reason, order, and decorum, creating entertaining and morally instructive works. The emphasis on realism and the depiction of everyday life in neoclassical novels reflected the broader neoclassical interest in human nature and society. While the novel would later evolve into a more experimental and subjective form, its early development was shaped by the neoclassical emphasis on structure, clarity, and moral purpose.
Neoclassical Criticism and the Visual Arts
Neoclassical principles were not limited to literature but also extended to the visual arts. Their emphasis characterised neoclassical painting and sculpture on order, symmetry, and the imitation of classical models. Artists like Jacques-Louis David and Antonio Canova sought to revive the ideals of ancient Greek and Roman art, creating works that reflected the values of reason, balance, and decorum. The neoclassical aesthetic in the visual arts was closely aligned with the principles of neoclassical criticism in literature, reflecting the broader cultural movement of the Enlightenment.
Key Figures
John Dryden (1631-1700)
- Often considered the father of English literary criticism
- Wrote An Essay of Dramatic Poesy (1668)
- Emphasised the importance of adhering to classical rules in literature
Alexander Pope (1688-1744)
- Wrote An Essay on Criticism (1711)
- Advocated for following nature and classical models
- Famous for his satirical works and translations of Homer
Samuel Johnson (1709-1784)
- Compiled A Dictionary of the English Language
- Wrote The Lives of the Poets
- Known for his balanced and moralistic approach to criticism
Nicolas Boileau-Despréaux (1636-1711)
- French critic and poet
- Wrote L’Art Poétique (The Art of Poetry), which outlined neoclassical principles
- Emphasised reason, clarity, and adherence to classical models
Voltaire (1694-1778)
- French Enlightenment writer and philosopher
- Advocated for clarity, reason, and good taste in literature
- Critiqued contemporary works based on neoclassical ideals
Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729-1781)
- German critic and dramatist
- Wrote Laocoon: An Essay on the Limits of Painting and Poetry
- Explored the differences between visual and literary arts
Joseph Addison (1672-1719)
- Co-founder of The Spectator
- Wrote influential essays on aesthetics and literary criticism
- Emphasised the importance of imagination in art appreciation
Richard Steele (1672-1729)
- Collaborated with Addison on The Spectator
- Contributed to the development of literary criticism in periodicals
Jonathan Swift (1667-1745)
- Although primarily known as a satirist, he contributed to neoclassical criticism
- Wrote A Tale of a Tub and The Battle of the Books, which engaged with critical debates of the time
Thomas Rymer (1643-1713)
- English critic and historiographer
- Wrote A Short View of Tragedy (1693)
- Known for his strict application of neoclassical rules to drama
John Dennis (1658-1734)
- English critic and dramatist
- Wrote The Advancement and Reformation of Modern Poetry (1701)
- Emphasised the role of passion in poetry while still adhering to neoclassical principles
Hugh Blair (1718-1800)
- Scottish minister and rhetorician
- Wrote Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres
- Influential in the development of literary criticism and rhetoric studies
Neoclassical criticism left a lasting legacy on Western literature and art. Its emphasis on reason, order, and decorum influenced the 17th and 18th centuries literature and shaped the development of literary theory and criticism in subsequent periods. While Romanticism and later movements would challenge and ultimately reject many of the principles of neoclassicism, the influence of neoclassical criticism can still be seen in the emphasis on form, structure, and moral purpose in literature. The neoclassical ideal of art as a disciplined and skilful craft grounded in the imitation of classical models continues to inform our understanding of literary excellence.